Statement of Non-Liability



Motorsport and driving in general is a dangerous thing.  As much as

everyone has a freedom to do whatever one pleases to do, one also needs

to realize that freedom comes with responsibility.  So be responsible

to whatever you do and don't sue me. 





Suspension 101 - Components of Suspension & What They Do





Introduction



Handling of a vehicle is determined by many variables.  Some of these

are tires, center of mass (a.k.a. center of gravity), chassis

torsional stiffness, suspension geometry, suspension components

(springs, shocks, anti-roll bars), etc.



There are many things that most people do not wish to change due to

various reasons.  For example, most people do not want to strip the

interior of the car to lower the center of mass.  It is understandable

as it would make a very impractical street car.  Installing roll cage

is not a really good idea for a street car, either.  Changing the

suspension geometry is not recommended without thorough understanding

of the vehicle dynamics.  Changing suspension components is the

easiest way to alter the handling characteristics of the vehicle.





Tires



Tires are black rubber things that provides the only contact with the

road surface.  Friction between tires and the road surface creates

acceleration, braking (deceleration), and cornering.  Most of you

learned in high school physics that:



	Ff = Cf * Fn



where Ff is the friction, Cf is the coefficient of friction, and Fn is

the normal force.  Well, ladies and gentlemen, I got news for you.

This equation only applies to very special cases where both surfaces

are very hard and have reasonably smooth finish.  This equation

certainly does not apply for tires.



Tire's frictional property can not be expressed as an equation really

well.  If I use the above equation, Cf will decrease with increase in

Fn.  As normal force increases, coefficient of friction decreases.  As

a results, friction force does not increase as much as increase in

normal force.





Weight Transfer



Weight transfer is a shifting of loading on tires due to acceleration.

Increasing speed, braking, and cornering cause weight transfer.  For

transverse acceleration, weight transfer can be expressed as:



	dW = (m * h * a) / t



where dW is the resulting weight transfer due to acceleration a (in

m/s^2 for metric unit and G in U.S. unit when lb. Used for mass), m is

the mass of the vehicle (kg for metric unit and lb. for U.S. unit), h

is the height of center of mass, and t is the track width.  For

longitudinal weight transfer, use wheel base instead of t.



This equation calculates the total weight transfer but does not

calculate how much weight is transferred by front or rear wheels.  It

required more complicated equation and a lot more details and

assumptions to calculate the weight transfer by each wheel, and I am

not about to get into that.



Just remember that, if you make on end of the car stiffer, there will

be more weight transfer at that end and lose some traction capability

due to increase loading on that end.





Springs



Springs are energy storing device.  They store energy by deflection.

Most springs are constant rate springs, i.e., amount of the force that

is stored is proportional to the deflection of the spring.  It is

usually expressed as:



	F = k * X



where F is the force (in lb., at least in the U.S.), k is the spring

constant (or spring rate) in force per deflection (lb./inch), X is the

deflection (in).



There are also progressive springs.  Progressive spring's spring

constant (k) increases with deflection.



OK, enough about what springs are.  We can now talk what springs do in

a car.  Springs absorb bumps, limits the motion of the vehicle due to

acceleration, braking, cornering, etc.





Shocks



Shock absorbers dampen the motion of suspension.  Shock absorbers do

not absorb impacts; springs do.  Shock absorbers are dampers.



Shock absorbers also control the transient motion of the vehicle.

Shock absorbers control HOW the car nose dive when brake is applied.

Springs control HOW MUCH car nose dives.  Shock absorber controls HOW

the car goes into roll when the steering is applied.  Springs and

anti-roll bar control HOW MUCH car rolls.



There are some adjustable shocks available.  Adjusting the extension

of the shock is called "rebound," and adjusting other direction is

"bump."





Anti-Roll Bars



Anti-roll bars are also known as roll bars, sway bars, anti-sway bars,

etc.  Anti-roll bars connect right and left wheel.  They resist roll

by twisting themselves, acting as torsion springs.





Tuning Springs, Shocks, & Anti-Roll Bars



You have to understand few terms before I can explain how to tune

suspension.



Understeer ("Push" for circle track people) - Handling characteristic

that, when car is turning on the constant radius circle, front end of

the car pushes to the outside of the circle with increasing speed.

Turning radius of the car increases with increasing speed, or more

steering is necessary with increasing speed. It is caused by front end

of the car having less traction than rear end.



Oversteer ("Loose") - Handling characteristic that, when car is

turning on the constant radius circle, rear end of the car pushes to

the outside of the circle with increasing speed.  Turning radius of

the car decreases with increasing speed, or less steering is necessary

with increasing speed. It is caused by front end of the car having

more traction by rear end.



Neutral - Ideal condition that is rarely achieved.  Car turns on the

constant radius circle with constant steering angle with increasing

speed. As strange as it seems, some racing cars can do this, until you

lose traction and get into severe oversteer.



Entry - Imagine that you are approaching a long sweeper.  Turn-in is

when you turn the steering and wait for the car to "settle" to steady

state roll angle.



Steady State - Your car is finished turning in.  You are giving the car 

constant steering angle and throttle angle.



Corner Exit - You are beginning to get on the gas pedal and unwind

steering.





Symptoms & Solutions



Entry Understeer - Increase the rebound of rear shocks.  Decrease the

bump of front shocks.  Increase the rear brake bias.  Brake earlier.



Entry Oversteer - Decrease the rebound of rear shocks. Increase the

bump of front shocks.  Decrease the rear brake bias.



Steady State Understeer - Stiffen rear spring and/or anti-roll bar.

Soften the front springs and/or anti-roll bar.



Steady State Oversteer - Stiffen front spring and/or anti-roll bar.

Soften the rear springs and/or anti-roll bar.



Exit Understeer - Increase rebound of front shocks.  Decrease bump of

rear shocks.  Stiffen rear springs/anti-roll bar.  Soften front

springs/anti-roll bar.



Exit Oversteer - Decrease rebound of front shocks.  Increase bump of

rear shocks.  Soften rear springs/anti-roll bar.  Stiffen front

springs/anti-roll bar.



Car is slow to respond to driver's input - Stiffen the car by springs,

anti-rollbars, and shocks.  Increase tire inflation pressure.



car hops over the bump - Soften the car.  Decrease tire inflation

pressure.



As you can see, changing one thing can alter the all three stages of

the handling.  You will have to make a compromise that best suits to

your requirement.  There are also more variables such as ride height

of the vehicle, wheel alignment, tires, driving style, corss weight,

etc., that can alter the handling of a vehicle.



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Yoshiki "Yogi" Mogi (yogi@tamu.edu)